I.The Isle of my Portfolio 121 (Writing in the Discipline)
Instructions
- 1
Ensure the subject and verb of any clause agree in both person and number. The person indicates whether the subject of the verb is first, second or third person. The number indicates whether the subject and verb are singular or plural. For example, "I think" is first person singular and "we think" is first person plural. "You think" is can be either second person singular or plural. "He/she/it thinks" is third person singular and "they think" is third person plural. A verb must agree in number (singular or plural) with its subject.
- 2
Determine if every pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, gender and number. The antecedent is the word to which the pronoun refers. For example, "Walter brought his laptop computer and e-book to school." The pronoun "his" refers to the antecedent "Walter." Both the pronoun and its antecedent are singular, third person and masculine. Therefore, the pronoun agrees with its antecedent. Use a singular pronoun to refer to such antecedents as each, neither, one, anyone, for example. Use a plural pronoun to refer to everyone or people, for example.
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- 3
Do not create shifts in sentence structure. A shift is an improper change in structure midway through a sentence. There are four basic types of shifts. A shift in person is mixing first, second or third person within a sentence. A shift in tense is using more than once tense in a sentence when it is unnecessary. A shift in voice is mixing active with passive voice. Unparallel construction occurs when the kind of words or phrases being used shifts or changes in the middle of the sentence. For example, "In my hometown, people pass the time shooting pool, pitching horseshoes, and at softball games" is unparallel construction. The corrected sentence should read, "In my hometown, people pass the time shooting pool, pitching horseshoes, and playing softball."
- 4
Avoid fragments, comma splices and run-on sentences. A fragment is a group of words used as a sentence. It is not a sentence because it lacks a subject, a verb or some other essential part, resulting in an incomplete sentence. For example, "Pete gunned the engine. Forgetting that the boat was hooked to the truck" is a fragment. The corrected sentence should read, "Pete gunned the engine, forgetting that the boat was hooked to the truck." When two independent clauses are connected with only a comma, it is called a comma splice. When the comma is not enough to connect these clauses, use a period, semicolon or conjunction instead. For example, "People say that being a stay-at-home mom is an important job, their actions tell a different story" is spliced. The corrected sentence should read, "People say that being a stay-at-home mom is an important job; their actions tell a different story." Two or more sentences joined without adequate punctuation or a connecting word is a run-on sentence. Separate into smaller sentences when possible.
- 5
Always avoid leaving misplaced or dangling modifiers in your finished work. Here is an example of a misplaced modifier. "The commercial advertised an assortment of combs for active people with unbreakable teeth." The corrected sentence should read, "The commercial advertised an assortment of combs with unbreakable teeth for active people." Dangling modifiers are descriptive words that modify a subject that is not stated in the sentence. They often appear as phrases containing "ing." Here is an example of a dangling modifier. "After living in the house for one month, the electrician recommended we update all the wiring." The corrected sentence should read," After living in the house for one month, we hired an electrician, who recommended we update all the wiring."
- 6
Stay away from sloppy sentences that confuse the reader. When you revise and edit, check for indefinite pronoun references, incomplete comparisons, unclear words and nonstandard language. The careless use of pronouns can cause an indefinite reference. For example in the following sentence, the pronoun "it" could refer to the dictionary or the shelf. "When Tonya attempted to put her dictionary on the shelf, it fell to the floor." Incomplete comparisons are leaving out words that show exactly what the word is being compared to. Do not use wording that has two or more possible meanings and is unclear to the reader. Avoid using nonstandard language that does not conform to the standards of the type of writing you are doing.
Readmore: eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/how_7967682_avoid-sentence-errors.html#ixzz1otBvkjaD
Chapter2- Levels of Usage
It is crucial to learn to differentiate between levels of usage; essays and reports require a more formally constructed language than everyday speech. It is all too easy to pepper written work with colloquial phrases or weak constructions that come naturally to mind but are incorrect or inadequate in the context of formal writing.
Language is sometimes rather arbitrarily divided into three major styles: formal, informal, and popular (vulgar). While there is some overlap between them, they operate under different conditions and achieve different ends.
Formal English is, for the most part, a written language. In general, it is confined to the realm of the serious: textbooks, academic or technical works, and most essays you will write at university. You would write formally in a letter of application for a job. Formal language tends to be impersonal and precise, and often uses long, carefully constructed sentences; the formal writer will avoid contractions and abbreviations, and will use a more specialized and complex vocabulary than that employed in everyday speech.
One must, however, beware of excess. Formal writing can easily become incomprehensible because it is too convoluted or wordy. In recent years the proliferation ofjargon has become altogether too general. Despite its sophistication, formal language must remain clear.
Informal English is the language spoken by most people every day. While educated speakers retain their knowledge of formal rules, they're more relaxed about grammar and less concerned with vocabulary when they're engaged in ordinary conversation. Informal writing reflects this relaxation. Sentences are shorter, and tend to avoid the more formal punctuation of the semi-colon and colon. Contractions and the first person are acceptable. Newspaper articles and columns are usually written informally, and you use informal language when you write to your friends.
While the dictionary of word usage (16Kb) is designed to help students avoid mistakes in formal writing, it has been prepared in a relatively informal style to make it more enjoyable to read (try taking it on your next holiday). Informal language is not necessarily inferior to formal; it simply serves a different purpose and is directed to a different audience. The essays of Mark Twain,the novels of Margaret Atwood and the film reviews of Pauline Kael are acclaimed works whose style is largely informal.
Popular English can be colourful and highly expressive, but it is out of place in any writing unless you are reporting speech. In everyday speech, imprecision of meaning or poverty of vocabulary can be compensated for by enthusiastic verbal expression, but you can't wave your hands around, or vary your voice for emphasis when you are writing. Many of the errors in usage covered in the dictionary which follows are a result of a lack of awareness of the difference between written and spoken English.
Here are some examples of how vocabulary changes in each level of usage:
| Formal | Informal | Popular |
|---|
| comprehend | understand | get it |
| intoxicated | drunk | wasted |
| exhausted | tired | bagged |
| dejected | sad | bummed |
A major problem with popular English is that its vocabulary is either too limited or too specialised (not all professors are up to date with the latest slang, and the slang used by one group may be scorned by another). Slang also changes rapidly. The third column in this list will look rather dated in a few years (if it isn't already), while the words in the first two columns have been around since Shakespeare.
The student must always be aware of what kind of work she or he is doing. The style must be appropriate to the subject, the situation and the intended audience
Chapter3- Verb Usage
A verb is a part of speech that usually denotes action ("bring", "read"), occurrence ("to decompose" (itself), "to glitter"), or a state of being ("exist", "live", "soak", "stand"). Depending on the language, a verb may vary in form according to many factors, possibly including its tense, aspect, mood and voice. It may also agree with the person, gender, and/or number of some of its arguments (what we usually call subject, object, etc.).
Verbs can be conveyed in many ways. Lets look in particular at the word "wear"
She wears a pink dress - This sentence is made up of three main parts, she, being the noun. Wears, being an action or 'doing' word. Pink, describing the noun about to be added to the sentence and, Dress, the noun which pulls all these words together (giving them all one key point) to complete the sentence.
Chapter 4-Pronoun Usage
Nominative case pronouns are used ONLY as subjects or predicate nominatives. Objective case pronouns are used ONLY as direct objects,indirect objects, or objects of prepositions.
Note: An appositive pronoun is nominative case when the appositive renames a subject or a predicate nominative. An appositive pronoun is objective case when it renames a direct object, an indirect object or the object of a preposition.
EXAMPLES
The Queen and I had tea together.
NOT
The Queen and me had tea together.
Subject = I 
Use I because it is a nominative case pronoun.
King John and she were friends.
NOT
King John and her were friends.
Subject = she Use she because it is a nominative case pronoun.
The winner is she.
NOT
The winner is her.
Predicate nominative = she Use she because it is a nominative case pronoun.
The President gave him the Medal of Honor.
Indirect object = him
Use him because it is an objective case pronoun.
The police stopped them at the interstate exit.
Direct object = them Use them because it is an objective case.
Chapter5-Subject and Verb Agreement
We all know these meanings of "agree," but when we talk about subject-verb agreement, we're talking about something different: matching subjects and verbsaccording to number. That is, when you have a singular subject, you have to match it with a singular verb form: The boy plays. When you have a plural subject, you must have a plural verb form: The boys play.
In short, simple sentences, you should have no problem with agreement. You can hear the problem: The boys plays. When it's wrong , it just sounds funny. However, there are four potential problem spots that you need to watch carefully:
- stuff in between the subject and verb
- reversed sentence order
- "-body," "-one," and "-thing" words
- "who," "which," and "that"
Stuff in between subjects and verbs
The stuff here is usually a prepositional phrase that separates the subject from the verb. Remember how we crossed out prepositional phrases in order to find the subject? (For a quick review, click here.) Do the same thing if you're having problems with agreement. Now, thinking about that, look at the following sentence and decide what's wrong with it:
The dishes in the kitchen is dirty.
Good guess! The subject and the verb don't agree. What's the probable cause for the problem? Kitchen (a singular noun) is right in front of is (a singular verb). If kitchenwere the subject, that would be okay. But, it's not. Cross out the prepositional phrase and you're left with:
The dishes in the kitchen is dirty.
"The dishes . . . is dirty?" Sounds wrong, doesn't it? The subject is plural, but the verb is singular. They don't agree. The correct version is:
The dishes in the kitchen are dirty.
Once you know how to look for this problem, it shouldn't be too hard to get rid of it when you proofread your paper.
Reversed sentence order
The normal pattern for English sentences is subject-verb. However, there are a few situations where this order is reversed (like this sentence):
- There are snacks on the laundry-room table.
- Where are they?
- On the table are the goodies!
See how the subject comes after the verb in each of these? If you can remember how to locate subjects and verbs, you shouldn't blunder into mistakes when writing reversed-order sentences.
"-body," "-one," and "-thing" words
The correct term for these words is indefinite pronouns, but if you remember them as "-body," "-one," and "-thing" words, you'll probably be able to spot them more easily. You only need to know one thing: if a word has one of these endings (like everybody,everyone, anyone, anything, etc.), it is always singular! You can also include each,either, and neither in this group. Look at the following:
- Everyone is going on a picnic.
- Each of the boys is taking his own lunch.
- If anyone drops something to eat, I'll grab it before he can pick it up.
You shouldn't have problems with these if you simply memorize the endings of words that are always singular.
NOTE: We said that either and neither are always singular; however, if you have two subjects in an either . . . or or neither . . . nor construction, getting the agreement right may give you fits. To get it right, just locate the subject closest to the verb and make the verb agree with it:
- Either the mailman or the construction workers are causing Peggy to bark like crazy.
- Neither the dogs down the street nor the one next door pays any attention.
Compare this with the following:
- Either the construction workers or the mailman is causing Peggy to bark like crazy.
- Neither the one next door nor the dogs down the street pay any attention.
Agreement, in this case, depends on the placement of the subject.
"Who," "which," and "that"
Remember dependent clauses? They have a subject and a verb, but they can't stand alone. That's what we're dealing with here, but with a little something extra. Now we've got to consider pronouns. A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun that comes before it, usually in the same clause or one very close to it.
Peggy is a troublemaker. She bites my ears and steals my food.
"Who," "which," and "that" are pronouns. When they take the place of a singular noun, they are singular; when they take the place of a plural noun, they are plural. This is important to remember when they are the subject of a clause. Compare the following sentences:
- Big Dog is one of those animals who are very intelligent.
- Big Dog is an animal who is very intelligent.
In both, who is the subject of a dependent clause. In number 1, it takes the place ofanimals (a plural form). That's why "are" is the correct verb choice. In number 2, whotakes the place of animal (a singular form), and that's why "is" is correct.
This may seem a bit confusing at first, but there's a way to get it right every time. If you find "who," "which," or "that" introducing a dependent clause (like in the examples above):
- Look at the word right in front of it (usually that's the word it takes the place of).
- Decide if the word is singular or plural (that will tell you whether "who," "which," or "that" is singular or plural).
- Make the verb agree!
That's all there is to it!
Chapter6- Pronoun an Antecedent Agreement
When we talked about subject-verb agreement, we said that the subject and the verbmust agree in number. That is, you have to make sure that both are singular or both are plural. The same goes for pronouns and antecedents.
A pronoun renames (takes the place of) a noun that comes before it.
An antecedent is what we call the noun that comes before the pronoun.
Two examples should be enough:
- I get worried when the neighbors let their dog out.
- The dog goes wild, and he always messes up my front yard.
In number 1, neighbors is the antecedent; their is the pronoun. They agree becauseboth are plural. In number 2, dog is the antecedent, and he is the pronoun. They agreesince both are singular. If you are having problems with pronoun-antecedent agreement, underline all your pronouns; then, locate the antecedent for each. Make sure that both are the same in number. That's all you have to do.
With subject-verb agreement, we also talked about indefinite pronouns ("-one," "-body," and "-thing" words). With pronouns, we need to look at the "-one" and "-body" words again. (Also include "either," "neither," and "each.") These are always singular, and that should be easy enough to remember. But most beginning writers seem to have trouble with them. Part of the problem is the way we speak. Few would notice anything wrong if they heard someone say,
- Everyone needs to take their dog to the vet regularly.
- Everybody was enjoying their vacation.
These sound okay, right? Maybe so, but they're wrong if you're writing. Words like "everyone" and "everybody" are always singular, so the plural pronoun their can't agree with them. The correct
versions are:
- Everyone needs to take his dog to the vet regularly.
- Everybody was enjoying her vacation.
You could use his or her in either sentence, depending upon the context.
Sexism in the language
Some suggest that you should always use "he or she," "his or her," or "him or her" instead of simply using the masculine "he," "his," or "him." If you're worried about the sexist tradition of using masculine pronouns to refer to all people, then rewrite your sentences in the plural, as in "People need to take their dogs to the vet regularly." "The people were enjoying their vacations."
You could use "he or she" (etc.), but it sounds awkward and will eventually lead to an agreement problem--if it doesn't bore your readers to death first. For instance:
If an owner doesn't take proper care of his or her dog, then he or she will find his or her pet may suffer. The pet will be grateful to him or her if he or she takes care of his or her reponsibilities. When he or she . . . .
You may be an inexperienced writer, but you're not an inexperienced listener. That passage simply sounds dumb. Like I said, if you're worried about a sexist slant, go for the plurals!
An adjective is simply a word which modifies the noun it is related to. Adjectives usually come before the modified noun. An adjective could also be a phrase or a clause instead of being a single word. John bought a blue shirt. (single word) Last night, a man in a blue coat stole my wallet. (phrase) I love the car which just crossed the street. (clause)
Adverbs are like adjectives, but they modify the verb. Ordinarily, there are three types of adverbs (see above examples).
He carefully left the room. He left the room with a scared face. He left the room which was located on the seventh floor.
Most single word adverbs are made simply by adding -ly to the end of the respective adjective: Careful-ly = in a careful manner Usually = in a usual manner (often) Simply = in a simple way
This list identifies words and constructions that sometimes require attention in writing projects. Some of the entries are pairs of words that are quite different in meaning yet similar enough in spelling to be confused. Some are nonstandard usages (e.g. alright) and informal constructions that are not acceptable in formal writing.
accept, except To accept is "To agree to something or to receive something willingly." To except is "to exclude or omit." As a preposition, except means "but" or "excluding."
advice, advise You advise someone. What you give that person is advice.
affect, effect Affect is a verb meaning either "to influence" or "to pretend." Effect as a verb means "to accomplish or to produce as a result." As a noun, effect means "result."
a lot This little expression causes a lot of trouble. It is two words, not one. The misspelling "alot" is nonstandard. The verb to partition is to "allot."
all right The misspelling "alright" is nonstandard usage. The two words are separate.
allusion, illusion Allusion is a reference to something literary or historical with which the reader is presumably familiar. An illusion is a false, misleading, or overly optimistic idea.
already, all ready Already is an adverb meaning "even now" or "previously." All ready is an adjective phrase meaning "completely prepared." (We are already late. We are all ready for the tournament.)
alter, altar Alter means change ("My instructor wants me to alter the format of my paper") and an altar is a religious object ("I was married at the altar of my church").
altogether, all together Altogether means "entirely" or "on the whole." All together means that all parts of a group are considered together. (This news story is altogether false. [entirely] A tug of war is won by a team pulling all together.)
among, between Between expresses the joining or separation of two people or things. Among refers to a group of three or more.
Nonstandard: We shared the pie between the three of us.
Standard: We shared the pie among the three of us.
anxious, eager Anxious should not be used in college writing to mean "eager," as in "Gretel is anxious to see her gift." Eager is the preferred word in this context.
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